The rapid increase in human activities impact the marine environment in a significant way producing a novel scenario, i.e. a “New Environmental Status” of the sea and habitats. It is of paramount importance to understand how marine ecosystems, communities and species react and adapt to these pressures in the Anthropocene Epoch. Stress resulting from such challenges may induce different adaptive and nonadaptive responses in the biotic component of ecosystems. Species might adapt with time to changes of our oceans through selection pressures, developing morphological and physiological adaptations to the “New Environmental Status”, or alteration of population responses or metabolic pathways in individuals may be observed due to the stress-related to these environmental changes. Previous studies have partially investigated these issues, often providing only fragmentary information on the type of impact or physiological responses, without using a comprehensive, ecosystem-based or multidisciplinary approach .
Seas are the richest in biological diversity (forms and taxa) on the Earth, with several organisms representing various levels of biological complexity. Among this variety of forms and functions, cephalopods represent an interesting key case study and can be selected as important bioindicators, because of their complex nervous system, richness of behavioral repertoire, marked behavioural plasticity and sentience (Amodio et al 2019; Pedà et al 2022a; Ponte et al 2021).
We will focus on Mediterranean cephalopods Coleoids (i.e. cuttlefish, squid and octopus) are important components of marine food webs (Amaratunga 1983; Clarke 1996; Xavier et al. 2018; Battaglia et al. 2022; Pedà et al 2022a), linking secondary production with higher trophic levels (Olson and Watters, 2003; Lehodey et al., 2010). Most cephalopods are voracious predators of fish and crustaceans (Villanueva et al., 2017), as well as key prey of many teleosts and elasmobranchs, marine mammals ,and seabirds (e.g., Romeo et al 2012; Pedà et al 2015; Foskolos et al 2020; Battaglia et al 2022). Furthermore, these organisms are important targets of commercial and recreational fisheries, are well-established components of the human diet having been exploited globally for millennia in many different food cultures (Mouritsen and Styrbæk 2018). Currently, cephalopods represent 5% of the global total marine capture volume and 4% of the total volume of world fisheries trade, although recently an increasing trend in cephalopod landings has been recorded, partially due to the increased market demand (Arkhipkin et al 2021) and their use in gastronomy. In 2016, cephalopod landings from the Northeast Atlantic were 30% higher than the 2000-2015 average, due mainly to high yields of octopus and short-finned squid. According to GLOBEFISH (https://goo.gl/kY6GGL), demand for both octopus and squid is growing , though depressed landings during 2017 and the beginning of 2018 yielded limited supplies. Given lower inventories worldwide, there is no effective buffer. Consequently, market prices have been increasing and are expected to continue to rise (https://goo.gl/wuUhav). Cephalopod fishery is geographically widespread, and is characterized by rapid development and a large diversity of species, with important trade around most productive fishing areas and regions where animals are consumed. In the Mediterranean, there is an important fishing tradition regarding the exploitation of cephalopod resources, also involving artisanal fisheries (Sartor et al. 1998; Lefkaditou et al 2004; Battaglia et al 2010; Pita et al2021).
Unfortunately, these fishery resources and in general the marine biota, are threatened by several forms of marine pollution that, consequently, can also affect human health. For this reason, the scientific community is paying special attention to the environmental threat of microplastics (MPs). MPs are small plastic items (size < 5 mm) that can be easily ingested by marine organisms and transferred along the food web causing physical/mechanical and chemical harms. In particular, marine biota can be exposed to toxic substances through leaching of plastic additives or other contaminants adsorbed on MPs surface such as persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and heavy metals and some of these substances can also bio-accumulate posing a health risk to marine organisms and human consumers.
Evidence of plastic collection and ingestion (mainly small microplastics and fibers) in O.vulgaris in the Mediterranean has only been published recently (Pedà et al 2022b). Other studies confirm the problem of the plastic ingestion in cephalopods from different habitats, i.e. pelagic (Dosidicus gigas; Rosas-Luis 2016; Gong et al 2021) and demersal (Sepia officinalis and Sepia pharaonis; Olivera et al 2020; Prasetyo and Putri 2021). The mechanisms behind an eventual uptake of plastic and other pollutants from exposure to a complex mixture of MPs and their vehicle chemicals to animal tissues is still understudied, although it is known that cephalopods can bioaccumulate both persistent pollutants and trace elements (Penicaud et al 2017).
Within this general framework, the future challenge is to focus on assessing the impacts of the new conditions of the marine environment (and in this case plastic impact) on cephalopods, finding a new approach to ascertain cephalopod adaptation and response (Xavier et al 2015).
Seas are the richest in biological diversity (forms and taxa) on the Earth, with several organisms representing various levels of biological complexity. Among this variety of forms and functions, cephalopods represent an interesting key case study and can be selected as important bioindicators, because of their complex nervous system, richness of behavioral repertoire, marked behavioural plasticity and sentience (Amodio et al 2019; Pedà et al 2022a; Ponte et al 2021).
We will focus on Mediterranean cephalopods Coleoids (i.e. cuttlefish, squid and octopus) are important components of marine food webs (Amaratunga 1983; Clarke 1996; Xavier et al. 2018; Battaglia et al. 2022; Pedà et al 2022a), linking secondary production with higher trophic levels (Olson and Watters, 2003; Lehodey et al., 2010). Most cephalopods are voracious predators of fish and crustaceans (Villanueva et al., 2017), as well as key prey of many teleosts and elasmobranchs, marine mammals ,and seabirds (e.g., Romeo et al 2012; Pedà et al 2015; Foskolos et al 2020; Battaglia et al 2022). Furthermore, these organisms are important targets of commercial and recreational fisheries, are well-established components of the human diet having been exploited globally for millennia in many different food cultures (Mouritsen and Styrbæk 2018). Currently, cephalopods represent 5% of the global total marine capture volume and 4% of the total volume of world fisheries trade, although recently an increasing trend in cephalopod landings has been recorded, partially due to the increased market demand (Arkhipkin et al 2021) and their use in gastronomy. In 2016, cephalopod landings from the Northeast Atlantic were 30% higher than the 2000-2015 average, due mainly to high yields of octopus and short-finned squid. According to GLOBEFISH (https://goo.gl/kY6GGL), demand for both octopus and squid is growing , though depressed landings during 2017 and the beginning of 2018 yielded limited supplies. Given lower inventories worldwide, there is no effective buffer. Consequently, market prices have been increasing and are expected to continue to rise (https://goo.gl/wuUhav). Cephalopod fishery is geographically widespread, and is characterized by rapid development and a large diversity of species, with important trade around most productive fishing areas and regions where animals are consumed. In the Mediterranean, there is an important fishing tradition regarding the exploitation of cephalopod resources, also involving artisanal fisheries (Sartor et al. 1998; Lefkaditou et al 2004; Battaglia et al 2010; Pita et al2021).
Unfortunately, these fishery resources and in general the marine biota, are threatened by several forms of marine pollution that, consequently, can also affect human health. For this reason, the scientific community is paying special attention to the environmental threat of microplastics (MPs). MPs are small plastic items (size < 5 mm) that can be easily ingested by marine organisms and transferred along the food web causing physical/mechanical and chemical harms. In particular, marine biota can be exposed to toxic substances through leaching of plastic additives or other contaminants adsorbed on MPs surface such as persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and heavy metals and some of these substances can also bio-accumulate posing a health risk to marine organisms and human consumers.
Evidence of plastic collection and ingestion (mainly small microplastics and fibers) in O.vulgaris in the Mediterranean has only been published recently (Pedà et al 2022b). Other studies confirm the problem of the plastic ingestion in cephalopods from different habitats, i.e. pelagic (Dosidicus gigas; Rosas-Luis 2016; Gong et al 2021) and demersal (Sepia officinalis and Sepia pharaonis; Olivera et al 2020; Prasetyo and Putri 2021). The mechanisms behind an eventual uptake of plastic and other pollutants from exposure to a complex mixture of MPs and their vehicle chemicals to animal tissues is still understudied, although it is known that cephalopods can bioaccumulate both persistent pollutants and trace elements (Penicaud et al 2017).
Within this general framework, the future challenge is to focus on assessing the impacts of the new conditions of the marine environment (and in this case plastic impact) on cephalopods, finding a new approach to ascertain cephalopod adaptation and response (Xavier et al 2015).